Competitive sport, as it is understood now, was uncommon in 19th century India. Wrestling was the only sport that was popular along the length and breadth of India. Lavishly patronised by the innumerable royal courts of India, champion wrestlers were icons who were revered and idolised by the common man. However, from the perspective of the upper classes and the literary intelligentsia, wrestling was exclusively a spectator sport. They would not, perhaps, could not, enter the arena themselves.
The upper classes preferred sedentary forms of recreation. India has a long tradition of such games, mainly games of chance. They were variously known as chaupat, songatya and pachisi in different parts of the country. They were played on boards which were embroidered on cloth or carved on wood. Sometimes, they were worked into the flooring itself. They involved a throw of dice, generally made of ivory or bone. These games feature prominently in the epic literature of India where games of chance are the agents of doom for Dharmaraja Yudhishthira and King Nala. In the 19th century, these games were universally popular across India and played by every segment of the population ranging from royalty to the sethias and from the classes to the masses. However, as these were games of chance which exuded a whiff of gambling, they were also frowned upon by the more puritanical segments of society.
Chess was perhaps the only board game that was well regarded as it was not a game of chance. Not only did the player have to master the rules of the game, he had to bring the full force of his intelligence to develop a winning strategy. Chess has a long history in India and is reputed to have traveled westwards to Iran and beyond and eastwards to China and Japan from here. Known as chaturanga in India, its name was Arabicised into shatranj and returned via Persia to north India under that guise. It may have been a national obsession, an impression best captured by the famous Urdu/Hindi writer, Premchand, in his fictional narrative, Shatranj ke khiladi, set in 1850s Lucknow.
Chess in western India
Chess was popular among both the colonisers and the colonised in Bombay. Though played by the highest British officials and Indians of all classes, chess hardly enjoyed any press in Bombay. Unlike other sports such as cricket, sailing and the hunt that regularly featured in the columns of the Bombay Courier and Bombay Gazette, chess kept a low profile.
The first book on chess to be published in Bombay was Essays on Chess, adapted to the European method of play. It was an English translation of a Sanskrit book, Vilas Muni Munjuri or “Diamond Flower Bud of Amusement” written by Trevangadacharya Shastree. Printed at the Bombay Gazette Press in 1814 by MD Cruz, the book owes its publication to a few high-ranking officials of the Bombay Government who were interested in chess. The author, originally from Tirupati, was a resident of Pune. His patron was Peshwa Bajirao II, the last ruler of the Peshwa dynasty, whose court was overrun by East India Company officials. Perhaps a few of them, impressed with Trevangadacharya’s prowess in chess, invited him to Bombay for a visit. It was during this visit that the book was published.
The book contains an introductory essay, followed by 96 game situations and their solutions. It does not have any illustrations of these situations simply because the technology for printing images was not yet available in any Bombay printing press. Trevangadacharya seems to have done the translation himself and it may have been revised by an Englishman who chose to remain anonymous. The book seems to have evoked a lot of interest as the list of nearly 150 subscribers appended to the book affirms. The buyers were very cosmopolitan. Not only do Europeans of every class feature in the list, it also contains numerous Parsi, Hindu and Muslim names. For the first time in Bombay, women feature prominently in the subscription list reflecting their interest in the game.
A later commentator (Frazer’s Magazine March 1840), reviewing Trevangadacharya’s book, notes that “many of its positions are exquisitely beautiful, and, in fact, of first-rate merit and science”. So impressive was this 1814 Bombay publication that it was promptly plagiarised by a prolific chess writer named William Lewis who incorporated its text into a book titled Oriental Chess (London, 1817). Trevangadacharya was horrified but was helpless because copyright laws did not exist in India. He was not just a writer but also a chess wizard. The same commentator recalls his reputation as a player:
“A friend of mine has seen him play three, and even four games at once, blindfold, with the best players, – performing his laborious task with perfect accuracy. He would attend European residents for a certain fee; and would play eight, ten, and twelve hours at a sitting, – taking no refreshment but a little rice or tea, and seldom opening his lips to utter a single word. He played indifferently [that is, equally well] the English or Hindoo variety of chess; and never, it is affirmed, was beaten by any European.”
Trevangadacharya was hardly a unique character. In her 1839 book, Western India in 1838, Mrs. Postans recalls her encounter with Ramdass, a native of Kathiawar, whom she eulogised as the “Phillodor of India”, comparing him with the legendary 18th-century French chess player, Francois Phillodor:
“This man plays his best game, without looking at the board; and, as he sits in a corner of the room, it is curious to hear him muttering over the chances of the game, and reasoning with himself on the consequences of his moves. If a false step is made by his adversary, Ramdass immediately detects it, and enumerates with ease, and in correct succession, the previous moves of both parties. When arrived at that which he is satisfied he can follow up, with one of his ingenious mates, Ramdass patiently awaits his adversary’s move, and then, springing from the ground, instantly fixes on the required piece, and drops it on the effective square, with a smile of triumph, and a monosyllabic ‘Bus,’ (enough) ’tis hard to bear.”
Chess in the 1850s
It was only in the 1850s that chess again emerged as a subject worthy of print in Bombay. This emergence can be perhaps linked to the newly minted celebrity status which the game had begun to enjoy in the Western world, especially Great Britain. In 1851, the first international chess tournament was organised in London. It coincided with the Great Exhibition of 1851, when people from all over the world flocked to London. The chess tourney was initiated by Howard Staunton (1810-1874), one of the world’s leading chess players of his time and considered the first world champion of chess. Staunton was also the author of two best-selling books on chess, The Chess-Player’s Handbook (1847) and The Chess-Player's Companion (1849). All this talk of chess had a direct impact on the fortunes of the game in Bombay.
The Bombay Gazette, the only daily English newspaper then being published in Bombay, began featuring chess puzzles in its columns on a regular basis from the 1850s. In an early form of correspondence chess (as opposed to across-the-board chess), games were also played by two players residing at different locations communicating through the columns of the paper.
The increased level of interest in the game led to the formation of the Bombay Chess Club on July 1, 1853. It was perhaps inspired by the Calcutta Chess Club which had been in existence for a few years. In its first meeting, the Club resolved that “the Laws of Chess as laid down in Staunton’s Hand-book be adopted as the laws to be observed by this club”. The Bombay Chess Club soon acquired its own rooms where members could play chess at any time, and it was proposed that “a meeting will take place every Saturday evening at 5 o’clock when the principal contests are likely to come off”. (Bombay Gazette, July 6, 1853).
Most of the members of the Bombay Chess Club were European, though it had a few Indian members including Bhau Daji, a medical doctor. Bhau Daji (1821-1874) first came into the public eye as a child in the 1830s because of his precocious talents in chess. His hagiographers have it that his prowess in the game caught the attention of a high official, presumed to be the then Governor of Bombay. Though the veracity of this story cannot be verified, it was not surprising that he was one of the promoters of the Bombay Chess Club.
Chess comes into print
The first non-English book to be published from Bombay on chess was the Ramuje shatranj in 1851. This Gujarati book was printed at the Jame Jamshed Press by its printer Hormusjee Dadabhoy. The authors of this 270-page book, Sorabjee Muncherjee Jalna and Aspundiarjee Jemsetjee Shroff, claimed to have incorporated the most useful and winning moves gleaned from the best sources with special attention being paid to moves played according to local or desi rules. It was initially intended to be a translation of Charles Tomlinson’s Amusements in Chess (1845) but as the authors could procure more books on chess by Staunton, Davis, and Irvine, they selected such matter from all of these books as would appeal to their Gujarati audience. Over a hundred game situations are illustrated and solved.
In 1854, perhaps inspired by the formation of the Bombay Chess Club, two handbooks on chess appeared in Marathi. Both of them aimed to fill a vacuum which their authors felt existed in the Marathi literary world. They made a case for chess to be adopted as a legitimate form of recreation by the upper classes of the Marathi speaking world as opposed to the games of chance which were then very popular.
The first book, titled Buddhibale khelnaracha mitra or The Chess-Player’s Companion, declared itself as a compilation from Howard Staunton’s book of the same name. Written by Hurichundra Chundroba Josey with the assistance of Narrayen Succaram Josey, the book is perhaps the most colourful and vividly illustrated book to have been published in Marathi until that time. It was printed in 1854 to the highest specifications by Gunput Krishnajee, the leading Indian printer in Bombay at that time.
In his foreword, Josey mentions that the general progress being made by society in all its aspects in recent years inspired him to attempt a book on chess. He laments the fact that there is no book on this excellent game in Marathi and most residents of Bombay, who would like to count themselves in the progressive classes, are not aware of the game and its rules. He contrasts this situation with that prevailing in other countries:
“Most authors who have exercised their pen on this subject are of the opinion that the game of chess originated in Hindustan. This being the case, it is indeed lamentable that this game enjoys very little popularity in this country, especially when we note that in those countries where this game was introduced much later, chess experts have made great improvements in the game. In the city of London, there are innumerable societies which have been refining the rules of the game and there are many designated places known as ‘Chess Club’ where this game can be played. Their behaviour is certainly worth of emulation; every week they devise a couple of new moves or stratagems and publish them in newspapers. It is hoped that readers of this book will establish chess clubs and strive to improve this game. They will certainly benefit by playing this game.”
Though Josey relies on Staunton for much of his material and illustrations, the book is not a translation. He variously expands or contracts the source material and also ensures that the Indian style of playing chess is incorporated into his presentation. Josey is conscious of the fact that his readers may not be able to easily comprehend the text. Not only does he advise them to read it slowly a few times, he tries to alleviate the situation by summarising the rules in Marathi verse for easy memorisation. He also uses punctuation marks in the Marathi prose, then not very common in Marathi printing, and takes care to explain their use to his readers.
As an illustrated text, Buddhibale khelnaracha mitra is a major landmark in Bombay printing. Both the text and illustrations are composed using type. Gunput Crishnajee seems to have cast or procured special types to depict the rooks and knights on the chessboard. Practically every illustration in the book and its title-page is printed in a combination of two colours: black and red or green and red.
In the same year, yet another book on chess appeared in Marathi. Titled The Chess-Play or Budhbalacha granth, it was an altogether more modest affair compared to Josey’s book. As it was published in October 1854, it is likely that it hit the market later. At sixty pages, it was less than half as long as the other book. Lithographed throughout (except for the cover which is printed using type), its monochrome illustrations were drawn by hand. The book was published under the auspices of the Sanmargadarshak Mandali of Bombay and was lithographed at their press. It was written by Sitaram Ravji Junnarkar and the text was revised by Laxman Moreshwar Shastri and Bal Parsharam Shastri.
In contrast to the European sources used by Josey’s book, Junnarkar relies on Indian sources. Much of his material is sourced from the Matla’ ul-Uloom o Majma’ ul-Funoon, a Persian book on the arts and sciences. Authored by Wajid Ali Khan, editor of the Agra-based Persian newspaper Zubdat al-Akhbar, it was published at his proprietary printing press in Hijri 1262 (1846). Junnarkar relied on this Persian book, which had become extremely popular across India, to trace the journey of the game of chess from India to Iran.
Though Junnarkar mainly focuses on the Indian or desi mode of playing chess, he does not lose sight of the “Angreji” and “Musalman” styles. Like Josey, he uses a mixture of Marathi verse and prose in the text to explain the rules and the various moves. Junnarkar is more concerned with the history of chess and attempts to trace the antiquity of the game in India and identifies its creator as Vrajlal, son of Shashinath through a mythical narrative. Junnarkar’s book, Budhbalacha granth, would have been considerably cheaper than Josey’s Buddhibale khelnaracha mitra.
The authors of these three books were conscious of the fact that the very act of publishing a book on a board game, seen by many as a frivolous pastime, could expose them to criticism. They preempted any future critics by arguing that the game of chess was not merely a recreation; it had practical applications in life and, if introduced to children, could give them valuable lessons. They also claimed that the game helped one develop strategic thinking and seek a better understanding of the future. The immediate impact of these books cannot be easily assessed. However, the game itself seems to have made a steady progress in the region and these Gujarati and Marathi books would have contributed to this transition.
Endgame
Chess went from strength to strength in Bombay and elsewhere in India. As the pieces on the chess board were standardised, the differences between the various modes of play were also ironed out. The Native Opinion (March 12, 1871), an Anglo-Marathi weekly published from Bombay, felt that there were hardly any differences in the playing styles:
“Some persons think that the manner of playing the game of chess, so familiar to all in the East, differs greatly from the modifications applied to it in the West, and that the Europeans and Americans who have periodicals such as the Chess chronicle, play matches at stated times, keep up Chess clubs, and sometimes hold a Chess congress have considerably altered the original Hindu rules of the game. Such however is by no means the case, and any one who plays in the Indian or Muhammadan fashion can very easily adapt his playing to the European method, the advocates of which believe on account of its simplicity and facility it ought to supersede all others.”
The latest English books on chess were easily available for purchase in Bombay. Games published in The Illustrated News and other London periodicals were eagerly followed by Indian readers. It was inevitable that, as in wrestling, the peculiarities of the desi style of chess would eventually give way to a global standard. This transition, however, helped create a deep-rooted chess culture in India which has stood the test of time.
_(14777660784).jpg "Chess games published in the The Illustrated London News in August 1861. Credit: Internet Archive Book Images, via Wikimedia Commons.")
This is a revised version of an essay which first appeared in PrintWeek India (September 2019).
