Anti-minority hate speech in India rose by 74.4% in 2024 compared to the previous year, according to a study published on Monday by Washington DC-based research group India Hate Lab.

The study, Social Media and Hate Speech in India, documented 1,165 instances of hate speech targeting religious minorities, primarily Muslims and Christians, in the country last year.

“This marks a 74.4% increase from 2023, when 668 such incidents were recorded,” it added. “Of these, 1,147 (98.5%) of speeches targeted Muslims – either explicitly (1,050) or alongside Christians (97) – while 115 (9.9%) targeted Christians, either explicitly (18) or alongside Muslims (97).”

As per the report, six of the 10 most frequent purveyors of hate speech were politicians, including Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Adityanath, Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Union Home Minister Amit Shah.

“Adityanath was responsible for 86 (7.4%) hate speech incidents, while Modi delivered 67, accounting for 5.7% of all such speeches in 2024,” it added.

The study analysed the role of social media platforms in the dissemination and amplification of verified in-person hate speech events in India in 2024, covering various types of public gatherings, namely political rallies, electoral campaign events, religious processions and protest marches.

It said that 931, or 79.9%, events where hate speech was recorded took place in states or Union Territories ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party. “The data suggests a strong correlation between political control and the prevalence of hate speech,” the research group said.

Opposition-ruled states recorded 234, or 20%, of such hate speech events in 2024, it added.

“BJP-ruled Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh topped the list of states with the highest number of hate speech events, collectively accounting for 47% of all recorded events in 2024,” the study said.

It added: “The BJP itself was the most frequent organiser, responsible for 340 hate speech events, mostly during general elections between March and June and critical state elections in Jharkhand and Maharashtra – a staggering 580% increase from 2023.”

Raqib Hameed Naik, who is executive director of the think tank Center for the Study of Organized Hate, which runs India Hate Lab, said that the report demonstrated that anti-minority hate speech was not incidental but followed a deliberate pattern.

“It is no longer just an instrument of communal polarization but, shockingly, a standard feature of Indian political culture and electoral campaigns, institutional structures and social fabric,” Naik said in a statement.

An August report by Human Rights Watch had said that Modi made Islamophobic remarks in 110 speeches while campaigning for the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.

“In at least 110 speeches, Modi made Islamophobic remarks apparently intended to undermine the political opposition, which he said only promoted Muslim rights, and to foster fear among the majority Hindu community through disinformation,” this report had said.

“Modi’s 2024 electoral campaign frequently used hate speech against Muslims and other minorities,” the report had added. “The leadership of Modi’s Hindu majoritarian BJP repeatedly made statements inciting discrimination, hostility, and violence against marginalized groups during [Modi’s] campaign to win his third consecutive term of office.”

The Human Rights Watch had also made particular reference to Modi’s April 21 speech in Banswara, Rajasthan, where he referred to Muslims as “infiltrators” and “those who have more children”.

The prime minister made similar comments on several other occasions while campaigning, it added.