The systematic and deliberate othering of their community wasn’t taken quietly by the Bhantus. While many so-called criminal tribes indeed benefitted from rehabilitation programmes – gaining respectability with land, land grants, titles, jobs as guards and hunting assistants – many opted for freedom over coerced settlements. Some returned to their native villages seeking solace and familiarity in the places that held deep cultural significance. Others, such as the infamous Sultana Daaku, reverted to dacoity, opposing the societal norms that were designed to control their existence.
Sparse funding and paucity of resources led to government rehabilitation programmes being abandoned mid-way. At this point, the government started to outsource the onus of rehabilitation to independent organizations and missions that were already working in India. The Salvation Army, the Christian missions from England and the Methodist missions from America, to name a few, had a competent presence in India. Apart from proselytizing these organizations also worked on social improvement.
The story of my maternal ancestors offers a glimpse into the impact of these missions on the life of nomads, and of Bhantus in particular. My grandfather Hardayal and his tribe were not criminals even if they were so branded. They were, in fact, pastoralists. However, their Bhantu identity preceded them before they set foot on the periphery of a village, leading to discrimination fuelled by rumours and biases.
At different times in their lives, Hardayal and his family benefited from the support and assistance of the Methodist missions from the UK and America. These missions not only played a vital role in uplifting their lives by offering essential resources like education and opportunities for personal growth, but, most importantly, they offered empathy – an emotion previously alien to itinerants.
In 1908, colonial authorities delegated the Salvation Army with the establishment of Salvation Army Settlements for men, women and children who had been identified by imperial authorities as part of “criminal tribes” based on historical records of criminal activities, ranging from convictions for theft and murder to mere suspicions based on social or family associations.
Previously considered a threat to the peace of the Raj, the Salvation Army (SA) missionaries had in the past endured arrests and persecution in the 1880s. Proselytising activities had stirred unrest, prompting police action against the SA missionaries on previous occasions. However, by the early twentieth century, the Salvationists had managed to develop a unique understanding with the Indian police and other colonial authorities. This likely enabled them to take on the responsibility of establishing settlements for the “criminal tribes”, working in collaboration with the government.
The government of the United Provinces was the first to officially invite the Salvation Army to work with the criminal tribes. Eventually, throughout the 1890s, SA worked to cultivate and expand its missions in India. In his inferred classification of Indian criminals, Booth-Tucker placed them into six categories: the incorrigible, the habitual, the hereditary, the ordinary, the youth and the child. And, irrespective of the category, he believed that the criminal could be reformed and reintegrated into society with integrity and good citizenship. Therefore the SA concentrated heavily on their social service projects with the so-called criminal tribes. As a result, they also received public subsidies. In many ways, the Salvation Army worked in cooperation with the imperial government and helped reinforce colonial power structures. And yet, their primary focus was on their religious goals and spreading their beliefs – whether the government approved or not.
The missions made numerous attempts at rehabilitation, tailored specifically to the needs and customs of various tribes. Educational opportunities were one avenue they used effectively. Hardayal Singh’s father was among those who benefited from such interventions.
Hardayal’s father was distinguished among his peers for his notable physical attributes and composed demeanour. During his youth, he underwent specialized training under a professional English hunter, further enhancing his hunting and tracking skills. Details about the fate of Hardayal’s grandfather, however, remain somewhat elusive; the only known fact is his exile to the notorious Kaala Paani prison. It is likely that Hardayal grew up without ever meeting his grandfather, creating a noticeable gap in his family’s history.
Despite the challenges they faced, both Hardayal and his sister managed to attend primary school. They became fluent in reading and writing Urdu and even acquired some proficiency in English. Their access to education opened new possibilities for them, providing a glimmer of hope for a better future that diverged from the hardships faced by their ancestors.
Even during his childhood, Hardayal had exhibited a keen intellect and a voracious curiosity. From an early age, Hardayal was acutely aware of the stigma attached with being a Bhantu, and despite that, he aspired to move up the social hierarchy. Unfortunately, witnessing his parents suffer discrimination at the hands of caste Hindus and the local police administration was an all too familiar reality for young Hardayal. This harsh accepted way of life created obstacles for any small advancements he tried to make.
Among the many restrictions imposed on men of his tribe, riding bicycles was strictly forbidden, but a courageous few defied these norms. Hardayal’s father owned a rusty second-hand bicycle. But since bicycles couldn’t belong to gypsies without attracting the scorn and disdain of Brahmins, he could only ride the bicycle after sunset. If he encountered an upper-caste man on the same path, he would have to dismount it promptly, as a sign of deference to their perceived superiority. The codes of servility were laid out and submitting to them was tradition.
Despite such open hostilities, Hardayal’s father had laid the foundations for change by blazing a different path. He imparted a love for hunting to his son, and Hardayal quickly proved himself to be an enthusiastic and worthy pupil. Impressed with his early interest and prowess, an American hunter had even gifted Hardayal with an elaborate hunter’s kit, replete with top-of-the-line tools. It remained his prized possession for life.
Even as there were some signs of improvement for the Singh family’s circumstances, their daily struggles against the cruelty of the upper-caste Hindus persisted with unrelenting force. The self-sufficiency and independence of the Bhantu community were perceived as a threat by those in positions of power. More tribesmen from the Bhantu clan were granted wastelands on the fringes of Bilaspur village for cultivation, however, this development did not sit well with the upper-caste villagers. When the community tried to establish themselves in semi-permanent houses around their fields, tensions with the villagers escalated, reaching a boiling point.
False accusations of cattle theft and land grabbing were hurled at them, creating a climate of constant distress and anxiety within the community. The relentless harassment they endured only added to the precariousness of the situation.
In Brahmin cosmology, the untouchables and criminal tribes were assigned a specific place in the order. Bhantus were nomadic outcastes, and their status had to remain low in order to maintain the system of power in society. Any upward mobility or progress was perceived as a threat to this established order, and led to efforts to suppress and hinder their growth. As missionary Rev. Phillip Godfrey wrote in his detailed book Outcastes’ Hope, shedding light on the challenges faced by the Bhantu and similar communities striving for a better future, “Hinduism is as much a social system as a religion, and that social system is built upon caste. Whatever weakens caste, weakens Hinduism.”
Excerpted with permission from This Land We Call Home: The Story of a Family, Caste, Conversions and Modern India, Nusrat F Jafri, Penguin India.
